Mughal Empire

Published on 16 Oct 2025

Mughals began to rule parts of India from 1526 and by 1707 ruled most of the sub-continent. Mughals were a branch of the Timurid dynasty of Turco-Mongol origin from Central Asia.

Political and Administrative organization under Mughal Empire 

The political and administrative organization under the Mughal Empire was a well-structured and efficient system that allowed the empire to govern a vast and diverse territory. Here are the key aspects of the political and administrative organization:

• Central Administration: At the top of the political hierarchy was the Mughal emperor, often referred to as the "Sultan." The emperor had absolute authority and was considered the highest authority in the empire.

• Example: The state had mainly four departments and four officers in central administration such as Mir Bakshi; Sadr; diwan; and Mir saman.

• Specialised courts:  Two different courts were held, one where the emperor held public audiences and addressed the concerns of the commoners and the other a private court with nobles where confidential matters were discussed.

• Example: Divan-i-Aam and Divan-i-Khas were the two courts.

• Nobility and Mansabdari System: The nobility, consisting of Mansabdars, played a crucial role in governance. The Mansabdari system assigned ranks (Mansabs) to nobles based on their military and administrative abilities.

• Example: Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.

•  Provincial Administration: The empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a provincial governor called a "Subedar" or "Nawab." 

• Example: These governors had considerable autonomy but were accountable to the central authority.

• Revenue Collection: Revenue collection was a vital aspect of administration. The revenue system was based on the "Zabt" system, where land revenue was fixed and collected by local officials.

• Example: As per the land revenue system of the Mughal administration, the land was classified and measured on the basis of the fertility of soils, such as Banjar, Chachar, Parauti, Polaj.

• Military Organization: The Mughal army was organized into different units, including cavalry, infantry, and artillery. It was one of the most formidable forces in the world at the time.

• Example: In the concept of military administration, elephants, horses, horsemen and soldiers needed to be maintained and supplied through the Mansabdars.

• Faujdari and Jagirdari System: The "Faujdari" system involved the administration of law and order in rural areas, often handled by local officers. The "Jagirdari" system granted revenue rights over a territory to a noble, who collected revenue and provided military service in return.

• Example: The Jagirs were transferable and no Jagirdar was given the same Jagir for a long time.

• Local Administration: Local administration was carried out by officials like the "Qazi" (judge), "Kotwal" (police chief), and "Patwari" (revenue collector) at the grassroots level.

• Example: At the village level, the subas were divided into Sarkars which were further subdivided into Parganas.

The Mughal Empire's political and administrative organization was characterized by a strong central authority, a well-structured bureaucracy, and a focus on revenue collection and military strength. This system allowed the Mughals to govern a vast and culturally diverse empire for several centuries.

Religious policies of Mughal rulers

The Mughal rulers, over the centuries, pursued a range of religious policies that evolved and adapted to the changing socio-political landscape of their empire. These policies were often influenced by the personal beliefs and inclinations of individual rulers.

• Babur (1526-1530) and Humayun (1530-1540;1555): The religious policy of the Mughals under Babur and Humayun was very liberal and secular. They followed the policy of religious tolerance and allowed people of different faiths to practice their religion freely.

• Example: Hindu Rajputs were given important positions within the military under the religious policy of the Mughals.

• Akbar (1556-1605): He pursued a policy of religious tolerance known as "Sulh-e-Kul" or "Din-i Ilahi." He aimed to create a syncretic religion that blended elements of Hinduism, Islam, and other faiths.

• Example: Akbar abolished the "jizya" tax on non-Muslims and promoted discussions among religious scholars of different faiths.

• Jahangir (1605-1627): Jahangir was more orthodox in his religious beliefs than his father, Akbar. However, he did not actively persecute non-Muslims.

• Example: Jahangir reinstated Islam as the state religion but banned forced conversions in his empire.

• Shah Jahan (1628-1658): Shah Jahan, known for building the Taj Mahal, did not implement any significant religious policies that deviated from Akbar's tolerant approach.

• Example: He gave grants to repair Hindu temples like the Kashi Vishwanath temple at Varanasi and Jagannath temple at Puri.

• Aurangzeb (1658-1707): Aurangzeb adopted a stricter Islamic policy. Aurangzeb favoured orthodox Sunni Islam and tried to make it the official religion of the empire. This changed the Mughal policy of religious neutrality.

• Example: Aurangzeb imposed jizya or religious tax on non-Muslims like Hindus and Jains.

The Mughal rulers' stance on religion not only influenced the 'Mughal religious policy' but also had profound effects on the empire's stability, prosperity, and ultimate decline. An all-encompassing and accepting 'Mughal religious policy' bolstered Mughal authority, while religious intolerance undermined it.

Akbar’s religious tolerance 

Akbar's religious tolerance is one of the most celebrated aspects of his rule. During his reign (1556-1605), he implemented a policy of religious tolerance and harmony that was quite progressive for its time. Here are key features of Akbar's religious tolerance:

• "Sulh-e-Kul" or Peace with All: Akbar's policy of religious tolerance was encapsulated in the principle of "Sulh-e-Kul," which means "peace with all."

• Example: The principles of Din-e-Ilahi, like mercy, tolerance and reverence for all religions, were meant to promote harmony among all religious groups.

• Abolition of the "Jizya" Tax: One of Akbar's first acts as emperor were to abolish the "jizya" tax, which had been imposed on non-Muslims in the empire.

• Example: This helped to remove a discriminatory tax based on religion.

• Religious Debates and Interactions: Akbar organized and participated in discussions among scholars of various religions, including Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Sikhism.

• Ecample: Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri helped foster understanding and dialogue between different religious communities.

• Religious Syncretism: Akbar was open to adopting practices and ideas from different religions. He even tried to create a syncretic religion called "Din-i Ilahi" that blended elements of various faiths.

• Example: He was known to celebrate religious festivals from multiple traditions.

• Appointments of Hindu Officials: Akbar appointed Hindus to important administrative and military positions, irrespective of their religious backgrounds.

• Example: Raja Todar Mal was the Finance Minister and one of his closest friends.

• Marriage Alliances: Akbar married Hindu princesses to strengthen political alliances and promote religious harmony.

• Example: His wife, Harkha Bai (Mariam-uz-Zamani) Rajput princess, was the mother of Jahangir and was a Hindu.

Akbar's religious tolerance was a departure from the more orthodox Islamic policies of his predecessors and had a lasting impact on India's cultural and social fabric. It contributed to a sense of inclusivity and harmony that is still remembered and celebrated today.

Land Revenue policies under Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire had a well-structured land revenue system that played a crucial role in the empire's fiscal administration. Land revenue policies were central to the Mughal economy and were designed to extract revenue efficiently while ensuring the economic well-being of the agricultural sector. Here are the key features of land revenue policies under the Mughal Empire:

• Zabt System: The Mughals implemented the "Zabt" system, also known as the "fixed revenue" system. Under this system, the land revenue was fixed for a specific period, often a decade.

• Example: The fixed revenue was based on the estimated average yield of crops in a particular region.

• Measurement and Survey: To determine land revenue accurately, the Mughal authorities conducted measurement and survey (known as "Guzar Bandobast") of agricultural land.

• Example: Skilled officials assessed land quality, assessed the potential for crop production, and categorized land into different classes.

• Classification of Land: Land was categorized into different classes based on its fertility, water source, and other factors. The revenue rate varied according to the land's classification.

• Example:  Four categories of land were present based on the fertility such as Polaj, parauti, chachar and banjar.

• Revenue Collection: The collection of land revenue was typically the responsibility of local officials, such as the "Amins" and "Qanungos."

• Example: Farmers could pay their revenue in cash or kind, depending on their preferences.

• Tenure System: Land tenure varied across regions. Some lands were directly owned by the state (known as "Khalisa"), while others were granted to nobles and officials as "jagirs" or "mansabs."

• Example: Nobles who received land revenue rights were responsible for collecting revenue and providing military service.

• Assessment Revisions: Periodic assessments and revisions of land revenue were conducted to account for changes in agricultural productivity or land use.

• Example: The revenue was fixed based on the past ten years’ average yield of land assessment.

The Mughal land revenue policies were instrumental in maintaining fiscal stability and ensuring a regular flow of revenue to the state. While the fixed revenue system provided a degree of predictability for farmers, it could also lead to economic pressures during periods of poor agricultural output or increased taxation. Overall, these policies were an essential aspect of the Mughal Empire's governance and economic structure.

Tags:
History & Culture

Keywords:
Mughal Empire 1526 AD Timurid dynasty Mughals Mir Bakshi Sadr diwan Mir saman Divan i Aam Divan i Khas Zat Zawar Mansab Mansabdari System Subedar Nawab Zabt Banjar Chachar Parauti Polaj Mughal administration Jagirdari System Faujdari system Jagirs Qazi Kotwal Patwari Sarkars Parganas Babur Humayun Sulh e Kul Akbar Din I Ilahi jizya Jahangir Shah Jahan Taj Mahal Kashi Vishwanath temple at Varanasi Jagannath temple at Puri Aurangzeb Islamic architecture Akbar’s religious tolerance Ibadat Khana Raja Todar Mal Harkha Bai Mariam uz Zamani Land Revenue policies under Mughal Empire Guzar Bandobast Amins Qanungos Khalisa Mansab

Syllabus:
General Studies Paper 1

Topics:
Indian Heritage and Culture