Published on 30 Jan 2025
Women and women's organisations are crucial in today's world for levelling the gender playing field, combating women's specific challenges and building a more inclusive and just society. Their work empowers women, promotes equality, and paves the way for a brighter future for all.
Multiple Forms of Discrimination Faced by Women in India
Women in India face various forms of discrimination, affecting their rights, opportunities, and overall well-being. These discriminatory practices stem from deep-rooted patriarchal norms and societal biases that perpetuate gender inequality.
✔ Skewed Sex Ratio: India's sex ratio skews towards males, with 914 females for every 1000 males (2011 Census), reflecting practices like female foeticide and infanticide due to a preference for male children.
✔ Disparities in Education: Girls especially in rural areas still encounter hurdles in accessing quality education due to gender stereotypes and early marriages, resulting in lower enrolment and completion rates.
✔ Violence: Domestic violence affects one in three women, hindering justice-seeking due to social stigma, fear, and inadequate support systems (NFHS-5).
✔ Sexual Harassment at Workplace: Women encounter sexual harassment in workplaces, public spaces, and educational institutions, often refraining from reporting due to fear, societal stigma, and insufficient legal recourse.
✔ Child Marriage: Child marriage remains prevalent (26.8% of women aged 20-24 married before 18 in 2019-20 NFHS), denying girls education, economic prospects, and autonomy in choosing life partners.
✔ Labour Force Participation: Women's participation in the workforce (37% according to PLFS 2022-23) remains lower than men's due to limited access to education, skills training, and job opportunities.
✔ Pay Gap: Women consistently earn less (24 % average gender pay gap in 2022-23 PLFS) than men for similar work, influenced by undervaluation, occupational segregation, and opaque pay structures.
✔ Property Rights: Despite legal provisions for equal inheritance, women, especially in rural areas, face hurdles in accessing and retaining property due to societal norms favouring male heirs.
✔ Healthcare Disparities: Women face healthcare disparities, especially in rural areas, with limited access to reproductive, maternal, and mental health services.
✔ Political Representation: Women's underrepresentation in political decision-making (14% of parliamentary seats held by women in 2023) limits their impact on policies affecting their lives.
Way Forward
✔ Education and Awareness Campaigns: Promoting education that challenges gender stereotypes through awareness campaigns in schools, workplaces etc. can highlight the importance of gender equality and women's rights.
✔ Legal Reforms and Enforcement: Strengthening and enforcing laws that protect women's rights and stricter implementation of laws against gender-based violence, harassment etc.
● Example: Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013.
✔ Economic Empowerment: Programs that support skill development, vocational training, and initiatives promoting women's participation in the workforce can uplift their economic status and consequently reduce discrimination.
✔ Support Systems and Safe Spaces: Establishing support systems such as helplines, shelters, counselling services, and legal aid specifically designed for women to voice their concerns without fear of reprisal can prevent offences against women.
● Example: SHe-Box by Ministry of Women and Child Development.
✔ Cultural and Social Change: Challenging practices that perpetuate discrimination by engaging with community leaders, influencers, and media can promote gender-sensitive narratives, positive role models, and bring about societal change.
Traditional Roles of Women in Indian Marriage
Marriage is an important institution in Indian society, and women play a crucial role in maintaining healthy and stable marriages. They are expected to be supportive wives, caring mothers, and responsible homemakers.
✔ Household Management: Managing household chores, cooking, and caring for children and elderly family members.
✔ Emotional Support: Providing emotional support and companionship to their husbands.
✔ Compliance with Family Norms: Adhering to family norms and traditions, including respecting elders and participating in religious ceremonies.
Evolving Roles of Women in Indian Marriage
✔ Pursuit of Education and Careers: Women are pursuing higher education and careers in various fields, breaking away from traditional expectations of domesticity.
✔ Economic Contribution: Women are contributing financially to their households, sharing the economic responsibilities with their husbands.
✔ Decision-Making Participation: Women are increasingly involved in decision-making processes within their families, voicing their opinions and perspectives.
✔ Challenging Gender Stereotypes: Women are challenging traditional gender stereotypes and expectations, advocating for equal rights and opportunities.
Women and Agriculture (Feminisation of Agriculture)
As per the 2011 census, about 33.7% of rural males migrate for employment and better economic opportunities. The increasing migration of rural men has led to the feminisation of the agriculture sector, with the participation of women in agriculture and allied activities becoming more significant. To address this changing scenario, it becomes essential to keep women at the centre of India’s policy initiative.
Reasons for Feminisation of Agriculture
✔ Male Out-migration: Rising rural-urban migration, primarily by men seeking better employment opportunities, leaves women shouldering agricultural responsibilities.
● Example: Economic Survey 2017-18 reports a 55% increase in female cultivators due to male out-migration.
✔ Gendered Division of Labour: Traditional notions of women's work in agriculture persist, leading to their increased involvement in sowing, weeding, harvesting, and processing activities.
✔ Economic Need: Poverty and landlessness drive women to work as agricultural labourers for additional income, contributing to the feminization of the workforce.
● Example: Periodic Labour Force Survey 2019-20 reports a 5.5% increase in female agricultural labour force participation due to economic need.
✔ Decision-Making Participation: Women are increasingly involved in farming and decision-making processes in the economic activities of the family.
✔ Encouraging policies by Government: Women's land ownership programs like "Rythu Bandhu" in Telangana have led to increased female participation in decision-making and investment in farm improvements.
✔ Work of Self-Help Groups and women's organisations: They empower women through microfinance and skill development, enabling them to start small agriculture-based businesses.
Impacts of Feminization of Agriculture on Women
✔ Lack of Land Ownership: Women often lack legal ownership of land, limiting their decision-making power and control over resources, and discouraging long-term investment in agriculture.
● Example: According to the Landesa Report 2018, only 12% of land in India is owned by women.
✔ Socio-Cultural Isolation: Women adopting male roles during men's absence face social disapproval, challenging established norms.
✔ Insufficient Time for Child Rearing: Juggling work and familial duties leaves women with limited time for children, impacting upbringing despite economic gains from male migration.
✔ Mental Health Issues: Spousal separation, lack of companionship, and increased household responsibilities contribute to mental health challenges for left-behind female partners of migrant workers.
✔ Discriminatory practices and societal constraints: It limits women's access to credit, training, and technology, disproportionately affecting their agricultural productivity and potential.
✔ Work Overload: In line with tradition, women handle reproductive and caregiving duties, and with male out-migration, they take on extra roles in agriculture, managing family responsibilities alongside farm work.
Way forward
✔ Implement land reforms: Ensure equitable land distribution and secure land rights for women through legal reforms and awareness campaigns.
✔ Facilitate access to credit and financial resources: Provide tailored microloans, training in financial management, and access to government schemes to empower women to invest in their farms and businesses.
✔ Inclusion of Local Women at Planning Stage: Mainstreaming women’s role in India’s agriculture sector, upcoming developmental projects and action plans should include women in its planning stages.
✔ Promote access to agricultural education and training: Offer specialised training programs in sustainable farming practices, technology adoption, and business management for women farmers.
✔ Provide digital literacy training: Equip women with digital skills to access information, market their produce, and connect with other farmers and resources.
✔ Advocate for gender-inclusive policies: Lobby for policies that address gender inequality in agriculture, including equal pay, access to markets, and representation in decision-making bodies.
✔ Promote peer-to-peer learning and mentorship: Facilitate knowledge exchange through farmer-to-farmer training programs and mentorship initiatives to empower women with practical skills and best practices.
✔ Gender Budgeting: Gender-sensitive formulation of legislation, programmes and schemes, and allocation of resources can be a powerful tool for achieving gender mainstreaming to ensure that the benefits of development reach women as much as men.
Women and the Gig Economy
Women play a significant role in the gig economy in India, contributing to various sectors and driving economic growth. The gig economy offers women flexibility, autonomy, and the ability to balance work and personal responsibilities, making it an attractive option.
Key Sectors of Participation
✔ Delivery Services: Women make up a substantial portion of delivery personnel, delivering food, groceries, and other goods.
● Example: Zomato
✔ Transportation Services: Women are increasingly driving cabs, auto-rickshaws, and other vehicles as part of ride-hailing services.
✔ Beauty and Wellness Services: Women provide beauty and wellness services, such as haircuts, massages, and home cleaning, through online platforms.
✔ Education and Tutoring: Women offer online tutoring, teaching, and skill development services through gig economy platforms.
✔ Customer Service and Support: Women handle customer service and support tasks for various companies remotely.
Significance of Women in the Gig Economy.
✔ Flexibility and Work-Life Balance: The flexibility of gig work allows women to manage their work schedules around their commitments, such as childcare or family responsibilities.
✔ Economic Empowerment and Independence: Gig work provides women with an opportunity to earn an independent income, contributing to their financial empowerment.
✔ Skill Development and Entrepreneurship: Gig work opportunities can help women develop new skills and gain experience, potentially leading to entrepreneurial ventures.
✔ Access to Technology and Platforms: The rise of online platforms and mobile technology has facilitated women's participation in the gig economy, bridging geographical and social barriers.
Challenges for Women in the Gig Economy.
✔ Income Insecurity and Lack of Benefits: Gig work often involves fluctuating income and a lack of traditional employment benefits, such as health insurance and paid leave.
✔ Social Stigma and Stereotypes: Women in gig work may face social stigma and stereotypes associated with non-traditional employment.
✔ Safety Concerns: Women working in gig economy sectors, such as delivery or transportation, may face safety concerns, particularly when working late at night or in isolated areas.
✔ Need for Skill Development and Upskilling: To enhance their earning potential and career prospects, women in the gig economy may need to invest in skill development and upskilling opportunities.
Way Forward
✔ Platform accountability: Platforms should invest in robust safety features like panic buttons, location tracking, and reporting mechanisms for harassment and discrimination.
✔ Community support: Encourage and facilitate the formation of online and offline communities for women gig workers to share experiences, offer support, and advocate for collective safety measures.
✔ Algorithmic transparency: Push for platform transparency in algorithms used for assigning jobs, ensuring they are free from gender bias and promoting equal access to opportunities.
✔ Fair compensation and payment security: Advocate for platforms to implement fair pay models, timely payments, and guaranteed minimum wages for all workers, regardless of gender.
✔ Social safety nets: Advocate for government policies and programs that provide social security benefits like healthcare, insurance, and pensions for gig workers, including women.
✔ Zero-tolerance policies: Platforms should have strict policies against discrimination and harassment based on gender, with clear reporting mechanisms and consequences for offenders.
Women and Technology
Women are increasingly making their mark in the technology sector in India. They are holding leadership positions in tech companies, developing innovative products and services, and pursuing careers in various fields, such as engineering, software development, data science, and artificial intelligence.
Need for Women in Technology and Technical field
✔ Diversity: Women bring a unique perspective to the tech industry, which can help companies create more inclusive products and services.
● Example: It was found that companies in the top quartile for gender diversity on their executive teams were 25% more likely to experience above-average profitability than companies in the bottom quartile. (McKinsey study)
✔ Problem Solving: Different backgrounds and experiences lead to diverse problem-solving approaches. Women in technology can offer fresh insights that may not be present in a more homogenous workforce.
● Example: With women making up 34% of the IT workforce, India is now almost at a 50:50 gender parity rate in STEM graduates. (NASSCOM)
✔ Role Models: Having visible and successful women in technical roles serves as inspiration for younger generations of girls and women, encouraging them to pursue careers in STEM.
● Example: Aruna Jayanthi was the CEO of Capgemini India.
✔ Combating Bias & Inequality: A diverse workforce helps in identifying and mitigating biases in technology.
● Example: Diverse teams are more likely to recognize and correct biases in algorithms that may disproportionately affect certain groups.
✔ Boosting Economic Growth: Increased female participation in the sector would generate employment, entrepreneurship, and economic advancement.
● Example: McKinsey estimates that closing the gender gap in tech alone could add $770 billion to India's GDP by 2025.
✔ Research: Women can make significant contributions to scientific research in the tech industry.
● Example: Dr. Anima Anandkumar, a computer science professor at Caltech, is known for her work in machine learning and artificial intelligence.
✔ Education: Women can play a crucial role in educating the next generation of tech leaders.
Challenges faced by Women in Technology and Technical field
✔ Gender bias and stereotypes: Women in the tech industry face gender bias where women are seen as ‘less technically competent’ than their male counterparts despite the same level of expertise.
● Example: Women comprise only 35% of the Indian tech workforce according to NASSCOM
✔ Lack of female role models and mentors: With only a few female leaders to look up to, women may feel like they don’t belong in tech or that their aspirations are unrealistic.
✔ Work-Life Imbalance and Unfriendly Policies: Long working hours, inflexible work arrangements, and lack of adequate childcare support make balancing career and family challenging for women, leading to higher dropout rates.
✔ Hostile Work Environment and Harassment: Reports of sexual harassment and sexist behaviour discourage women from entering and staying in the field, creating a hostile and unsafe work environment.
✔ Lack of support for returning to work: Women who take a break from their careers to raise children or care for family members often face challenges when returning to work.
✔ Limited networking opportunities: Networking is crucial for career growth, and women may have limited networking opportunities in the tech industry
✔ Lack of access to funding: Women-led startups in India often struggle to secure funding.
Way Forward
✔ Education: Promote STEM education for girls from a young age, offer scholarships and mentorship programs, and dismantle gender stereotypes associated with these fields.
✔ Societal Mindset: Raise awareness about the critical role women play in tech and challenge traditional gender norms through targeted campaigns, media representation, and community outreach programs.
✔ Mentorship & Role Models: Create mentorship programs connecting aspiring women with established professionals in tech.
✔ Networking & Support Groups: Foster communities and networks for women in tech to share experiences, offer peer support, and learn from each other.
✔ Promote Diversity in AI & Algorithms: Raise awareness about gender bias in algorithms and AI systems, and encourage women to participate in their development and implementation, ensuring inclusivity and equitable outcomes.
✔ Targeted Skill Development: Organise training programs and workshops tailored to women's needs and interests, focusing on technical skills, leadership development, and career advancement strategies.
✔ Innovation for Social Impact: Encourage women to develop tech solutions that address challenges faced by other women, such as healthcare access, financial inclusion, and safety concerns.
Workspace Gender Inclusivity
Achieving genuine gender inclusivity in Indian workplaces is a critical issue. It requires broader societal transformations for resolution.
Barriers to achieving workplace gender inclusivity
✔ Cultural Stereotypes: Indian societal expectations often lead women to prioritise family roles over careers, resulting in fewer women in the workplace.
✔ Patriarchal Organisational Structures: Male-dominated hierarchies in Indian workplaces limit women's access to leadership positions.
✔ Bias against married women: Bias against married or childbearing women while hiring, as employers are apprehensive about providing paid maternity leave.
✔ Implicit Bias and Stereotype Threat: Women face implicit biases in performance evaluations, receiving less recognition for similar work.
✔ Harassment and Safety Concerns: Workplace harassment, often unreported due to fear of repercussions, remains prevalent.
✔ Lack of Work-Life Balance: Inadequate support systems make it challenging for women to balance work and family responsibilities, exacerbated by non-uniform maternity leave policies.
✔ Education and Skills Gap: Gender biases in education limit women's access to lucrative job sectors like STEM(Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) fields.
✔ Cultural Sensitivity Training: Insensitivity and biases hinder inclusivity in workplaces, creating hostile environments.
Way Forward
✔ Gender-neutral recruitment: Use unbiased language in job descriptions, focus on skills and experience, broaden candidate pools, and consider anonymized applications.
● Example: Unilever implemented blind recruitment practices where resumes are anonymized to mitigate unconscious bias.
✔ Equal pay and opportunity: Conduct regular pay audits to address any gender pay gap, provide transparent promotion criteria and advancement opportunities, and offer equal access to training and development programs.
✔ Flexible work arrangements: Implement flexible work schedules, remote work options, and generous parental leave policies for both men and women to promote work-life balance.
✔ Zero tolerance for harassment and discrimination: Establish clear policies against any form of harassment or discrimination based on gender, create accessible reporting channels, and provide proper training on respectful behaviour.
✔ Employee resource groups (ERGs): Support the formation and activities of ERGs for women and marginalised groups, creating safe spaces for networking, mentorship, and addressing specific challenges.
✔ Open communication and feedback: Encourage open communication channels where employees can voice concerns about gender inequality and provide feedback on inclusivity initiatives.
✔ Inclusive leadership and role models: Promote women into leadership positions, empower them to lead by example, and actively champion diversity initiatives within the company.
● Example: Google hosts "Women Techmakers" events and workshops to empower women in the tech industry and connect them with role models.
Society
Women
Women and Technology
Gig economy
Feminisation of Agriculture
Gender Inclusivity
General Studies Paper 1
Role of Women