Published on 03 Oct 2025
The series of revolts and protests before 1857 was largely localised and smaller in scale characterised by limited participation. The limited reach and lack of coherent strategy rendered such movements largely unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the importance of such movements cannot be neglected as they laid the foundation for the widespread showdown in 1857.
General nature of the resistance
Outburst of discontent: The pent-up frustration of the aggrieved was the primary character of these resistances and they were not a planned operation aimed at establishing the native rule.
No long-term vision: The absence of strategy and inability to provide alternatives prevented it from becoming an all-India uprising.
Limited in scope: The resistance was primarily localised and the rest of the areas remained unaffected.
Severe repression: The British suppressed these revolts with an iron hand to showcase its might and to prevent others from unfurling the banner of revolt.
No nationalistic feeling: The revolts were meant for their own interests and the idea of a native rule independent of foreign control was never focussed upon.
Causes of Civil uprising and Peasant uprising
Economic Exploitation:
Over-Exploitation by Landlords: Landlords, often supported by colonial policies, exploited peasants through high rents and oppressive practices, leading to severe economic distress.
Example: In the Indigo Rebellion, British planters forced peasants to grow indigo under harsh conditions.
High Taxation: The British imposed high taxes on agricultural produce, which were often collected irrespective of crop yield, leading to widespread indebtedness among peasants.
Example: The high land revenue demands during the Deccan Riots and the Kheda Satyagraha caused significant peasant unrest.
Debt and Indebtedness: Peasants frequently borrowed money at high interest rates from moneylenders to pay taxes and rent, leading to a cycle of debt and eventual land loss.
Example: During the Deccan Riots, indebted peasants revolted against moneylenders, destroying debt bonds.
Agricultural Depression: Periodic famines, crop failures, and market fluctuations led to agricultural depression, further worsening the economic conditions of peasants.
Example: The Bardoli Satyagraha was sparked by an increased tax assessment during a time of agricultural distress.
Revenue Systems: The oppressive land revenue systems imposed heavy taxes on peasants irrespective of their crop yield, leading to widespread poverty and indebtedness.
Example: Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems.
Forced Cultivation: Farmers were often forced to grow cash crops like indigo and opium, which were not suitable for their lands and provided little income compared to food crops.
Example: The Indigo Rebellion (1859-60) in Bengal was sparked by the forced cultivation of indigo under oppressive conditions.
Biased Legal System: The judiciary during the colonial era protected the interests of the British and its collaborators, such as landlords, and money-lenders.
Example Rowlatt Act of 1919 allowed the British colonial government to imprison any person suspected of terrorism without trial
Destruction of indigenous industries: Promotion of British goods and imposition of elevated duties, particularly export duties, resulting in the annihilation of the Indian handloom and handicraft industries.
Example: Traditional muslin industry in Dacca collapsed as weavers were unable to compete with imported British textiles
Social Discrimination:
Caste-Based Oppression: The rigid caste system led to the exploitation and marginalization of lower castes, fueling discontent and uprisings.
Example: The Satnami Rebellion of 1672, in what is today Haryana, was driven by the oppression of the lower-caste Satnami community.
Tribal Exploitation: Tribes faced exploitation through the usurpation of their lands, disruption of their traditional livelihoods, and imposition of foreign laws and taxes.
Example: The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) was a reaction against the exploitation of Santhal tribes by landlords and moneylenders.
Political Factors:
Loss of Autonomy: The annexation of princely states and the imposition of direct British rule led to the loss of traditional authority and autonomy, causing uprisings.
Example: The revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794) against British annexation and policies.
Oppressive Policies: Policies such as the Doctrine of Lapse and the introduction of Western legal and administrative systems were resented by the local population and rulers.
Example: The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 was partly fueled by the resentment towards the British policies and administrative practices.
Cultural and Religious Factors:
Religious Interference: Attempts to interfere with or disrespect local religious practices and traditions often led to uprisings.
Example: The rebellion of the Moplahs (1921) in Malabar was influenced by religious factors along with economic grievances.
Westernization: The imposition of Western cultural practices and education was perceived as a threat to traditional Indian values and social structures.
Example: The resistance to British educational policies in the early 19th century led to movements like the Young Bengal Movement.
Environmental and Natural Factors:
Famine and Drought: Natural calamities like droughts and famines exacerbated the misery of the peasantry, often leading to uprisings against perceived mismanagement and lack of relief from the authorities.
Example: The Deccan Riots (1875) were partly driven by the failure of crops and the resultant famine conditions.
Influence of Reform Movements:
Socio-Religious Reforms: Reform movements that aimed at social equality and the abolition of traditional practices also inspired uprisings against oppressive systems.
Example: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati's early 20th-century movements focused on addressing peasant grievances and advocating for their rights.
Land Revenue Policies
The Zamindari System: landlords (zamindars) collected taxes from peasants and paid a fixed revenue to the British government. The zamindars often exploited the peasants for higher rents and had extensive control over agricultural practices.
The Mahalwari System: This system involved the collective payment of land revenue by a village or a group of villages (mahal). The revenue was assessed and collected by local leaders, which often led to arbitrary and heavy assessments.
The Ryotwari System: Under this system, peasants (ryots) paid taxes directly to the government based on the assessed value of their land. While it eliminated the middlemen, it placed a heavy tax burden directly on the peasants.
History & Culture
PEOPLE’S RESISTANCE BEFORE 1857
General nature of the resistance
Causes of Civil uprising and Peasant uprising
Indigo Rebellion
Over-Exploitation by LandlordS
Deccan Riots
Kheda satyagraha
moneylenders
Bardoli Satyagraha
Zamindari
Ryotwari
and Mahalwari systems
Satnami Rebellion
santhal rebellion
Sepoy Mutiny
Young Bengal Movement
Land Revenue Policies
Zamindari System
Mahalwari System
Ryotwari System
General Studies Paper 1
Modern Indian History
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