INDEPENDENCE WITH PARTITION

Published on 29 Sep 2025

India became independent on 15th August 1947. The Indian Independence Act Partitioned British India into 2 independent dominions of India and Pakistan as per the boundary demarcated by the Boundary Commission. Sir Cyril John Radcliffe was the Chairman of both the boundary commissions of Punjab and Bengal. As per the report, Pakistan was to comprise of the two regions lying on either side of India - the West and East Pakistan which is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh respectively.

Reasons behind inevitability of Partition 

• Communal Tensions:

• Historical Roots: Long-standing religious, cultural, and social differences between Hindus and Muslims had created deep-seated communal tensions.

• Divide and Rule Policy: British colonial policies often exacerbated these tensions by fostering division between communities to maintain control.

• Two-Nation Theory:

• Muslim League's Demand: The All-India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, strongly advocated for a separate nation (Pakistan) for Muslims, citing concerns of minority rights in a Hindu-majority India.

• Failure of Compromise: Efforts to find a political compromise between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League failed, especially after the Lahore Resolution of 1940 which formally demanded a separate Muslim state.

• Political Deadlock:

• Simla Conference: The failure of the 1945 Simla Conference to reach an agreement on the formation of an interim government highlighted the deep mistrust between the communities.

• Cabinet Mission Plan: The rejection of the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 by the Muslim League, which initially proposed a united but decentralized India, led to further polarization.

• Violence and Riots:

• Direct Action Day: The Muslim League’s call for Direct Action Day on August 16, 1946, led to widespread communal riots.

• Example:  In Calcutta communal riots escalating fears and violence.

• Noakhali Riots: Subsequent communal riots in Noakhali, Bihar, and other parts of India increased the urgency for a solution to prevent further bloodshed.

• British Position:

• Post-War Realities: Post-World War II, the British were economically weakened and eager to exit India. The rising violence and unrest made partition appear as a practical solution to them.

• Mountbatten Plan: Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, expedited the process, presenting a plan in June 1947 that proposed partition as the quickest way to transfer power and ensure stability.

Impacts of Partition

• Social impacts

• Communal Holocaust: Ethnic clashes on both sides of the border resulting in reported casualties between 2 lakh and 2 million. This was more vicious in areas between West Pakistan and Punjab.

• Example: Cities like Lahore, Amritsar, and Delhi witnessed horrific bloodshed.

• Gendered nature of violence: Women were particularly targeted, with widespread reports of mass rapes and abductions on both sides of the border.

• Increased poverty on both sides of the border: The loss of lives and property exacerbated poverty and deprivation in both countries for a long time.

• Political impacts

• Continuing impact on India-Pakistan relation: The relationship between Pakistan and India has been profoundly shaped by this legacy of Partition. Perceptions of communities on both sides have been structured by the conflicting memories of those momentous times.

• Kashmir as an unresolved disputed region: The Kashmir issue which is a vestige of the partition continues to be a friction point between the 2 countries and a national security concern for India. 

• Humanitarian Crisis:

• Massive Exodus across the border: An estimated 10-20 million people said to have been displaced as a result of Partition, considered to be one of the largest in history

• Death and Suffering: Estimates suggest that around 1-2 million people died due to violence, disease, and malnutrition during the chaotic migration.

• Refugee Camps: Both India and Pakistan struggled to accommodate the influx of refugees, leading to overcrowded and undersupplied refugee camps.

• Economic impacts

• Loss of fertile agricultural land to Pakistan: Out of 70 million acres of irrigated/fertile land in the undivided country, 48 million remained with India, while the other 22 million acres fell into Pakistan’s share.

• Resource - Population imbalances: Pakistan got around 18% of the overall population and 23% of the country’s area, while India was burdened with around 82% of the total population with only 77% of the area.

• Lack of mineral wealth in Pakistan: Most of the mineral producing areas were left with India.  Only less than 5% of mineral production of the country received by Pakistan.

• Impact on Indian trade: Adverse impact on India’s trade as major ports and major commercial crop (Jute and Cotton) cultivating areas lost to Pakistan.

• Example: Karachi port.

Tags:
History & Culture

Keywords:
INDEPENDENCE WITH PARTITION Indian Independence Act Boundary Commission Sir Cyril John Radcliffe Reasons behind inevitability of Partition West and East Pakistan Divide and Rule Policy Cabinet Mission Direct Action Day Noakhali Riots Mountbatten Plan Impacts of Partition Communal Holocaust

Syllabus:
General Studies Paper 1

Topics:
Post-Independence Consolidation